Understanding African American Male Students
A number of recent
studies have examined the plight of African American male
students. Social scientists, teachers and scholars have begun
to work together to address the needs of this group. Statistics
reveal that this group clearly warrants serious attention:
·
Only 48% of all African American males graduate from high
school.
·
Black boys are suspended or expelled from school more than any
other group.
·
Black males are more than 3 times more likely than white males
to be enrolled in special education programs.
At
least one theorist believes black males are, “an endangered
species” (Madhubuti, 1990). Still another educator feels that
African American males are essentially being set up for failure
(Kunjufu, 1986). When seeking to help black boys, one must
first understand the social and cultural environment in which
they live.
Community Factors
Black neighborhoods in the
1960’s were much different than they are today. Forty years ago
black lawyers, teachers and doctors all lived in the community.
These individuals served as role models and mentors. The vast
majority of black people engaged in community guardianship.
Locals filled in for parents who may have been at work or
otherwise detained. Black children essentially knew their every
move was being watched by caring community members.
Prominent,
well-respected anchors of the community relocated after
desegregation laws were passed. A number of affluent people
took advantage of new opportunities and headed for the suburbs
leaving many poor blacks in a precarious situation.
Neighborhoods disintegrated overnight, and without a financial
tax base schools fell into disrepair.
Social forces and public policies
further exacerbated an already difficult situation. The number
of African American divorces sky rocketed in the 1970’s. Young
black females were of course affected by the changes in
society. But black males seemed to fare worst. African
American boys dropped out of school in record numbers and the
amount of black on black crime increased.
Today black families who live in
the inner city still face a myriad of problems. Much of the
violence that takes place in American metropolises can be
attributed to racial inequality and socioeconomic conditions (Blau
& Blau, 1982).
Black families who
move to suburban areas also face specific challenges. There is
always the chance that they will not be welcomed into a new
affluent local. Some Caucasians may wonder if the new black
residents will “bring down the neighborhood.” Others may be
particularly concerned if the family has one or more African
American males. Lingering questions may arise. Will
they attempt to date the girls in the neighborhood? Will the
new youngsters behave in a socially acceptable manner? African
American males who live in suburban areas are often the object
of both fear and fascination. They are frequently eyed with
suspicion.
A black male can
live in an affluent neighborhood for years and still feel out of
place. His posture, ideas and worldview many not be readily
understood. Moreover, he may at times be hyper aroused, and
fear that an unwelcome incident may take place. In his mind he
needs to be prepared in case someone tries to “act up.” He may
wonder if he will be the victim of a hate crime, or subject to a
random act of violence. One cannot help but wonder how these
fears play out in the classroom.
Family Factors
Traditional social
science literature tends to highlight black family pathologies.
Ogbu (1981) repudiates the notion that white families are normal
while black families are somehow dysfunctional. In recent years
particular attention has been paid to black single parent
females (Bush, 2000). Sudarkasa (1993) rejects the notion that
most inner-city ills can be traced to single black female
parents. She notes that in many black communities female headed
households are accepted as legitimate. Still we cannot overlook
the fact that many black boys are growing up without a man in
the home. Men are needed to show black boys how to handle
certain situations. Unfortunately, in some cases we find black
male fathers who slide in and slide out or their children’s
lives. Children thrive on regularity so this intermittent
reinforcement schedule can be particularly harmful.
Some black boys
are socialized to be tough or fearless. Fearing their son may
fall prey to the streets some black parents may teach them how
to be hard. In some instances a firm exterior or stern look may
be all that is needed to ward off an attacker. By contrast,
there are numerous black parents who teach their boys to be
obedient, proper and well-behaved. Playing by the rules is
paramount, and all adults are to be respected. My point here is
that black families are diverse. Black parents employ a number
of childrearing strategies when raising their youngsters.
When Street Gangs
Replace The Family
In 1960 only 22 %
of black children lived with one parent (U.S Bureau of Census,
1991). By 2000 the number had increased to 63% (Joint Center).
A host of problems can arise when a family unit breaks down.
There is some evidence that suggests poor fatherless African
American males are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior
(Paschall, Ringwalt & Flewelling,
2003).
Adolescence is
traditionally a time when children move from dependence to
independence. Some kids will engage in risky behaviors, while
others may find a new peer group. The process by which
teenagers break away from their parents is commonly called
individuation. This is a challenging time for all teens but it
can be particularly difficult for African American boys. They
may be approached by a gang member and told to “be down or get
down.” This street phase means that a person can either join
the gang or risk being assaulted. Fearing for their life some
males will join the gang.
Thrasher (1963)
believed that poor economic and social conditions could be
fertile ground for gang recruitment. Others believe some black
boys join gangs in hopes of finding a father figure
(Boyd-Franklin, & Franklin, 2000). Today’s gangs are certainly
more organized and ruthless than those in the past. Money,
power, and respect are frequently at the heart of gang disputes
(Hughes & Short, 2005)
Gang members in
the 1960’s were expected to “mature out”, once they reached a
certain age (Hangedorn, 1998). They would generally settle down
and assimilate into the broader society. By contrast seasoned
black gang members today are often called “original gangsters.”
They may receive status, admiration, and accolades if they “put
in work” or have been to jail.
Education
In 1930, almost 10
times as much money was spent educating a white student as was
spent educating a black student (Williams, 1988). Some
theorists believe far too much attention is spent on per pupil
spending. Still, there is plenty of evidence that suggests a
direct link between student expenditures and academic outcomes
(Kozol, 1991).
Poverty is another
factor said to affect a child’s academic trajectory. This is
significant because a large number of blacks live at or below
the poverty line (McKinnon & Bennett, 2005). Indeed, Orr (2003)
found that there is a direct relationship between black and
white test scores and wealth.
Kunjufu (1986) believes that the fate of black boys is
being determined by white females. He
feels that some Caucasian teachers do not understand African
American boys. Their mannerisms and behaviors are foreign to
them. As a result, African American males are referred to child
study teams more than any other group. Gary Orfield,
co-director for Harvard University’s Civil Rights Project
believes that, “The real problems are things like white teachers
who don’t understand how to deal with young black boys who are
acting up” (McNally, 2003, p. 3). Other educators also feel
that too many black males are being classified. Cartledge
(1997) asserts that some black boys have an intense high-key
style of play. She believes that such behavior is “more
indicative of a cultural style than a behavior disorder” (p.
49).
Some black students suffer from a
negative social identity. Peterson-Lewis &
Bratton (2004) asked African American students to define what ‘acting
black’ meant. A significant number of youth believed the term
referred to kids who didn’t go to class or wore expensive
clothing. Other students felt that using slang, saggin’
(wearing pants well below the waist) or acting disrespectful
were black traits. Such comments would seem to indicate a
certain amount of self-hatred.
What Student Assistance Programs Can Do
There are
certainly a number of intervention strategies on the market.
Most, however, are written by Caucasian scholars and theorists.
As a result, these programs are often ineffective when dealing
with students from diverse backgrounds.
Even the most
scientifically proven programs may need to be modified to
address the needs of black boys. Cookie cutter approaches don’t
always work. Student assistance professionals need to be aware
of certain things when dealing with black boys.
● It is a mistake to assume that all black
boys are alike. Some may have a “hard” exterior while others may
be more sociable and friendly. Regardless of their posture,
helping professionals should seek to understand their
worldview. A student assistance counselor doesn’t have to agree
with everything a black male student says. However, it is very
important that the child be heard.
● Some student assistance coordinators may
need to receive diversity training. In addition, they may need
to take a look at how they view black boys. There is certain
amount of truth to the adage, “that which you see, you
produce.” It is difficult for a person to inspire a black male,
when he views him as a thug, a hood or a troublemaker. You can
not teach a child whom you do not love or understand. Diversity
training may help professionals become aware of racist attitudes
and thoughts.
·
Student service employees must be familiar with how liquor
executives target young black males. All advertisements seek
increase sales, but black ads are particularly insidious. Black
males are frequently portrayed as highly sexualized or ultra
masculine. SAP professionals should be willing to examine how
black men are portrayed. They should seek to dispel the myth
that drinking and manhood are linked.
·
Teachers, core team members, and other personnel need to believe
that black boys can make it even though the cards are stacked
against them. Staff members often want to throw in the towel
and give up on African American males. This is unfortunate as
one should never underestimate human agency.
·
Helping professionals should show positive images of black men.
Three African American males eloquently outlined their struggles
and challenges in their book The Pact. All three young
men eventually became doctors. Counselors and teachers should
provide materials which help black males develop a strong social
identity.
·
Staff members are quick to label black families as
dysfunctional, unstable or chaotic. SAP’s should avoid such
labeling of black boys or the families they come from.
·
Helping professionals should seek to learn about African
American rites of passage programs. At least one theorist
(Hill, 1992) believes that a formal “crossing over ceremony” can
be helpful in demarking a transition into manhood. Such
programs let black boys know that it is time to stop playing and
put childish things aside.
African American
males are often misunderstood and overlooked. They will most
likely continue to do poorly in the classroom if their learning
styles and needs are not addressed. Furthermore, without
intervention they will continue to be expelled from school or
placed in special education programs.
Administrators and
teachers often look for a magical program to help black boys.
Some students only need the support of an adult who believes in
them. Formal intervention strategies may be required in other
cases. Regardless of the treatment modality, black boys can
succeed in spite of unspeakable odds.
Marc Freeman, MSW has worked as a Substance
Awareness Counselor for 14 years. He is currently a SAC at
Trenton Central High School in Trenton, NJ. He can be reached
at
mjfreeman@trenton.k12.nj.us.
References
Blau, J. & Blau, P. (1982). The cost of
inequality. American Sociological Review, 42,
114-129.
Boyd-Franklin, N. & Franklin, A. J.
& Toussaint, P. (2000). Boys into men: Raising our African
American teenage sons. New York: Plume Books.
Bush, L. V. (2000) Black mothers/Black
sons: A critical examination of the social science literature.
Western Journal of Black Studies. 24(3), 145-156.
Cartledge, G. (1997). Cultural diversity
and social skills instruction: Understanding ethic and gender
differences. Campaign: Illinois: Research Press.
Davis. S., Jenkins, G. & Hunt, R. (2002).
The Pact: Three young men make a promise and fulfill a dream.
New York: Riverhead books.
Green, J. & Winters, M. (2006, April).
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Hangedorn. J. (1998). Gang violence in the
postindustrial era. Crime and Justice. 24, 365-419.
Hill, P. (1992). Coming of age: African
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Hughes. L & Short, J. (2005). Disputes
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http://www.jointcenter.org
Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities:
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African-American Images.
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McKinnon J. & Bennett, B. (August 2005). We
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Washington, DC.
Ogbu, J. (1981). Origins of human
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Orr, A. (2003). Black-White difference in
achievement: The importance of wealth. Sociology of
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Paschall, M.,
Ringwalt, C. & Flewelling, R. (2003). Effects of parenting,
father absence, and affiliation with delinquent peers on
delinquent behavior among African-American male adolescents.
Adolescence 48(149), 15-34.
Peterson-Lewis,
S., & Bratton, L., (2004). Perceptions of 'acting black'
among African American teens: Implications of racial dramaturgy
for academic and social achievement.
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American households: Some neglected dimensions. In H. P. McAdoo
(Ed.). Family ethnicity: Strength in diversity (pp.
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Published in the Summer 2007 edition of
The Student Assistance
Journal
